- Social Science 8th First term All Notes
- Social Science First Term Notes Malayalam
- Social Science First Term Notes English
Concept Map: Units 1-7
Unit 1: Invasion and Resistance
Value Point Explanation: This unit traces the arrival of European powers in India, motivated by trade and enabled by technology. It details their methods of gaining political and economic control, highlighting key conflicts, policies, and the significant Indian resistance, culminating in the 1857 Revolt which fundamentally changed the nature of British rule.
Reasons for European Sea Routes to the East
- Technological & Intellectual Growth: Advances in shipbuilding, navigation (compass), and geography made long sea voyages possible.
- Commercial Demand: High demand for Asian products, especially spices like pepper, in European markets.
- Geopolitical Blockade: The Ottoman Turks' conquest of Constantinople in 1453 cut off the traditional land trade route, necessitating an alternative sea route.
The Portuguese in India
- Arrival: Vasco da Gama was the first to arrive by sea at Kozhikode in 1498.
- Initial Interaction: The Zamorin of Kozhikode rejected Portuguese demands for a trade monopoly and the expulsion of Arab traders.
- Conflict & Expansion: This refusal led to conflicts. The Portuguese established trade relations with the rival king of Kannur and their first voyage's massive profits encouraged further expeditions.
Portuguese Influence on India
- Agriculture: Introduced new crops like cashew, papaya, guava, and pineapple.
- Infrastructure & Military: Built the first European fort (Fort Manuel, Kochi) and introduced European construction styles and warfare tactics.
- Culture & Society: Popularised printing technology and art forms like Chavittunatakam. Started Christian religious education and contributed words to the Malayalam language.
The Battle of Colachel (1741) & Dutch Contribution
- Significance of the Battle: Marked the first major defeat of a European power (the Dutch) by an Indian ruler (Marthandavarma of Travancore), ending Dutch supremacy in the region.
- Dutch Contribution: The compilation of Hortus Malabaricus, a comprehensive treatise on Kerala's medicinal plants, led by Governor Hendrik van Rheed with the help of local experts like Itti Achuthan.
Rise of the British East India Company
- Key Acquisitions:
- Madras (1639): Ceded by a local Nayaka ruler.
- Bombay (1662): Received as a dowry gift to the British King.
- Calcutta (1698): Developed around Fort William.
- Key Battles for Dominance:
- Battle of Plassey (1757): Defeated Siraj-ud-Daulah, gaining control of the wealthy province of Bengal.
- Battle of Buxar (1764): Defeated a combined Indian force, securing the right to collect taxes in Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa, solidifying their financial and administrative power.
- Key Acquisitions:
British Tax Policies
- Permanent Land Revenue Settlement (1793): Implemented in Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa. Fixed high taxes collected by Zamindars, regardless of crop yield.
- Ryotwari System (1820): Implemented in South India. Taxes were collected directly from peasants (Ryots), and land was seized for non-payment.
- Mahalwari System (1822): Implemented in North India. The village (Mahal) was the unit for tax collection.
- General Features: Extremely high tax rates, no relief for crop failure, forced cultivation of cash crops, and widespread farmer indebtedness.
The Revolt of 1857
- Primary Reasons:
- Administrative Reforms: Policies like the Subsidiary Alliance and Doctrine of Lapse annexed many princely states, causing widespread anger.
- Soldier Discontent: Indian soldiers faced discrimination (low pay, poor conditions) and the introduction of greased cartridges offended their religious sentiments.
- Key Leaders: Bahadur Shah II (Delhi), Rani Lakshmibai (Jhansi), Nana Sahib (Kanpur), Begum Hazrat Mahal (Lucknow), Kunwar Singh (Bihar).
- Limitations: The rebellion was not pan-Indian, lacked a unified command, and was outmatched by superior British military organisation.
- Impact: Ended the rule of the East India Company, brought India under the direct control of the British Crown (Viceroy), and served as a major inspiration for future freedom struggles.
- Primary Reasons:
Unit 2: Towards the Emergence of the National Movement
Value Point Explanation: This unit explains the genesis of Indian nationalism as a unifying force against British rule. It explores how economic exploitation, Western education, social reform movements, and the formation of the Indian National Congress collectively nurtured a national consciousness, leading to organised movements like the Swadeshi Movement.
Nationalism & British Economic Policy
- Definition of Nationalism: A sense of unity among Indians transcending regional, religious, and cultural differences, born from a shared anti-British sentiment.
- Economic Exploitation (Drain Theory): Dadabhai Naoroji’s "Drain Theory" articulated how Britain was systematically draining India’s wealth, transforming it into a source of raw materials and a market for British goods. This created widespread poverty and fueled anti-British feelings.
Role of Education, Literature, and Newspapers
- Western Education: Introduced Indians to ideals like democracy, liberty, and equality, creating a class of intellectuals who questioned British rule. English became a common language for nationalist leaders.
- Literature: Works by authors like Bankim Chandra Chatterjee and Rabindranath Tagore instilled patriotic fervour and highlighted the people's suffering.
- Newspapers: Acted as a tool to criticise British policies, spread nationalist ideas, and shape public opinion, despite attempts at control like the Vernacular Press Act.
Key Social Reformers
- Raja Ram Mohan Roy: Fought against Sati, child marriage, and idolatry. Advocated for modern education and women's rights. Founded the Brahma Samaj.
- Jyotirao Phule: Worked for the rights of lower-castes and women in Maharashtra. Established schools and the Satyashodhak Samaj.
- Pandita Ramabai: A champion of women's education and rights. Established schools and shelters (Sharada Sadan, Mukti Mission) for widows and girls.
Formation of the Indian National Congress (INC) - 1885
- Objectives:
- To foster unity among political activists across India.
- To strengthen national unity beyond caste and religion.
- To formulate and present common demands to the British.
- To organise and shape public opinion.
- Objectives:
Partition of Bengal (1905) & Swadeshi Movement
- Motive for Partition: Lord Curzon's strategy to weaken the nationalist movement by dividing Bengal, a hub of political activity, along religious lines (Hindu-majority West and Muslim-majority East).
- Swadeshi Movement: The protest against the partition evolved into a nationwide movement with two main strategies:
- Boycott: Refusal to use British goods.
- Swadeshi: Promotion of Indian-made goods, industries, and institutions (banks, stores, factories).
- Impact: Brought the masses, including women and students, into the freedom struggle and significantly strengthened the nationalist cause.
Moderates vs. Extremists
- Moderates (e.g., Gokhale, Naoroji): The early leaders who believed in peaceful, constitutional methods like petitions and resolutions.
- Extremists (e.g., Tilak, Pal, Rai - "Lal-Bal-Pal"): A later group that was dissatisfied with the Moderates and advocated for stronger, more direct action like boycotts and mass struggles to achieve freedom.
- Surat Split (1907): The ideological differences between the two factions led to a split in the Congress, which the British exploited to suppress the movement.
Unit 3: Movements of the Earth
Value Point Explanation: This unit focuses on the fundamental astronomical movements of the Earth—rotation and revolution—and explains how these motions are directly responsible for key terrestrial phenomena like day and night, the changing of seasons, and the global system of timekeeping.
Earth's Rotation & Revolution
- Rotation: The Earth spinning on its axis from west to east, taking 24 hours.
- Revolution: The Earth orbiting the Sun in an elliptical path, taking 365¼ days.
- Effects of Rotation:
- Day and Night: Caused by the part of the Earth facing or turning away from the Sun.
- Coriolis Effect: The deflection of freely moving bodies (wind, ocean currents) to the right in the Northern Hemisphere and to the left in the Southern Hemisphere.
Perihelion and Aphelion
- Perihelion: The point in Earth's orbit where it is closest to the Sun (approx. 147 million km), occurring around January 3rd.
- Aphelion: The point in Earth's orbit where it is farthest from the Sun (approx. 152 million km), occurring around July 4th.
Apparent Movement of the Sun & Seasons
- Concept: The Sun appears to move north and south between the Tropic of Cancer (23½° N) and the Tropic of Capricorn (23½° S) due to the Earth's tilted axis (23½°).
- Effect: This apparent movement is the primary cause of seasons and the varying length of day and night throughout the year.
Equinoxes and Solstices
- Equinoxes: Days when the Sun is directly over the Equator. Day and night are of equal length everywhere.
- Spring Equinox: March 21st
- Autumnal Equinox: September 23rd
- Solstices: Days when the Sun is directly over one of the Tropics, resulting in the longest/shortest day of the year.
- Summer Solstice (June 21st): Sun over Tropic of Cancer. Longest day in the Northern Hemisphere.
- Winter Solstice (December 22nd): Sun over Tropic of Capricorn. Shortest day in the Northern Hemisphere.
- Equinoxes: Days when the Sun is directly over the Equator. Day and night are of equal length everywhere.
Global Time Calculation
- Basis: The Earth rotates 360° in 24 hours, meaning it turns 15° per hour or 1° every 4 minutes.
- Local Time: Time calculated based on the Sun's overhead position at a specific longitude.
- Standard Time: A uniform time for a whole country, based on the local time of a centrally located meridian (Standard Meridian, e.g., 82½° E for India) to avoid confusion.
- Greenwich Mean Time (GMT): The time at the Prime Meridian (0° longitude), used as the international standard for time calculation.
Unit 4: Basic Economic Problems and the Economy
Value Point Explanation: This unit introduces the foundational principles of economics, starting with human needs and the core economic problem of scarcity. It explains how different economic systems (Capitalist, Socialist, Mixed) attempt to solve these problems and introduces the key ideas of influential economic thinkers.
Human Needs
- Basic Needs: Essentials for survival (food, clothing, shelter).
- Gratifying Needs: Wants that provide comfort and happiness (luxuries).
- Characteristics: Needs are unlimited, diverse, recurring, and change over time.
Three Basic Economic Problems
- What to produce? Deciding which goods and services to create with limited resources.
- How to produce? Choosing the method of production (labour-intensive vs. capital-intensive) based on resource availability.
- For whom to produce? Determining how the produced goods, services, and resulting income will be distributed among the population.
Economic Systems
- Capitalist Economy:
- Ownership: Private individuals own factors of production.
- Motive: Profit maximisation.
- Control: Limited government intervention; driven by market competition and consumer choice.
- Socialist Economy:
- Ownership: Government owns and controls all factors of production.
- Motive: Social welfare.
- Control: Centralised planning by the government makes all economic decisions.
- Mixed Economy (e.g., India):
- Ownership: Coexistence of private and public sectors.
- Motive: Balances profit with social welfare.
- Control: A combination of market freedom and government regulation/planning.
- Capitalist Economy:
Key Economic Thinkers & Ideas
- Classical & Modern Economists:
- David Ricardo: Theory of international trade benefits and theory of rent.
- Karl Marx: Theory of Surplus Value (exploitation of labour by capital).
- J.M. Keynes: Advocated for government intervention to solve economic problems.
- J.A. Schumpeter: Concept of Creative Destruction (innovation disrupting old industries).
- Indian Economic Thinkers:
- Mahatma Gandhi: Advocated for a self-sufficient, decentralised rural economy based on local production and social justice.
- Amartya Sen (Nobel Laureate): Focused on Welfare Economics, emphasising education, healthcare, and human freedom as measures of development.
- Abhijit Banerjee (Nobel Laureate): Known for an experimental approach to alleviating global poverty.
- Classical & Modern Economists:
Unit 5: Constitution of India: Rights and Duties
Value Point Explanation: This unit examines the foundational legal and moral framework of the Indian Republic. It details the Fundamental Rights guaranteed to citizens, their historical inspirations, the guiding Directive Principles for the state, and the corresponding Fundamental Duties of the citizens, all of which work together to uphold democracy and social justice.
Significance of Rights
- Role in Democracy: Rights are essential claims that limit government power and ensure individual liberty, dignity, and security.
- Fundamental Rights: These are core human rights enshrined and protected by the Constitution itself, making them superior to ordinary laws and enforceable by courts.
Historical Influences on Fundamental Rights
- Global Documents: Magna Carta (1215), French Declaration of Rights (1789), US Bill of Rights (1789), and the UN's Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948).
- Indian Experience: Shaped by the denial of rights under British rule and the values of the freedom struggle.
Six Fundamental Rights
- Right to Equality (Art. 14-18): Ensures equality before law and prohibits discrimination.
- Right to Freedom (Art. 19-22): Guarantees freedoms of speech, assembly, movement, profession, and includes the right to life and education.
- Right against Exploitation (Art. 23-24): Prohibits forced labour, human trafficking, and child labour.
- Right to Freedom of Religion (Art. 25-28): Guarantees freedom of conscience and the right to profess, practice, and propagate any religion.
- Cultural and Educational Rights (Art. 29-30): Protects the language, script, and culture of minorities and their right to establish educational institutions.
- Right to Constitutional Remedies (Art. 32): The "heart and soul" of the Constitution; allows citizens to approach the Supreme Court/High Courts to enforce their fundamental rights through writs.
Directive Principles of State Policy vs. Fundamental Rights
- Nature & Purpose:
- Rights: Limit government power and protect individuals (negative obligations). Primarily ensure political democracy.
- Principles: Guide the state to achieve social and economic justice (positive obligations). Aim for a welfare state and socio-economic democracy.
- Enforceability:
- Rights: Legally enforceable by courts.
- Principles: Not enforceable by courts, but are fundamental to the country's governance.
- Nature & Purpose:
Fundamental Duties (Art. 51A)
- Origin: Added in 1976 on the recommendation of the Swaran Singh Committee.
- Purpose: To remind citizens that rights come with responsibilities towards the nation and society, such as respecting the Constitution, promoting harmony, protecting the environment, and safeguarding public property.
Unit 6: Resource Utilisation and Sustainability
Value Point Explanation: This unit defines what constitutes a resource and classifies different types of resources. It examines the pivotal role of key resources like minerals in industrial development, analyses the negative environmental and social consequences of industrialisation, and introduces the concept of sustainable development as a solution to balance progress with environmental preservation.
Resources: Definition & Classification
- Definition: Anything available in the environment that is technologically accessible, culturally acceptable, and can satisfy human needs.
- Classification by Origin:
- Natural Resources: Obtained from nature (e.g., air, minerals).
- Man-made Resources: Created by humans (e.g., roads, buildings).
- Classification by Renewability:
- Renewable Resources: Can be replenished or are continuously available (e.g., sunlight, wind).
- Non-Renewable Resources: Exist in finite quantities and deplete with use (e.g., coal, petroleum, iron ore).
Minerals & Their Classification
- Definition: Naturally occurring substances with specific chemical and physical properties.
- Metallic Minerals: Contain metals.
- Ferrous: Contain iron (e.g., iron ore).
- Non-ferrous: Do not contain iron (e.g., bauxite for aluminium).
- Non-Metallic Minerals: Do not contain metals.
- Organic: Contain organic components (e.g., coal, petroleum).
- Inorganic: Do not contain organic components (e.g., graphite, clay).
Iron & Steel Industry
- Significance: Considered a basic or foundational industry because it supplies raw materials for countless other industries. Its growth is a key indicator of a nation's overall industrial and economic development.
- History in India: Started in 1907 with TISCO. Expanded significantly after independence with public sector plants (Bhilai, Rourkela, Durgapur) managed by SAIL.
Pollution from Manufacturing Industries
- Air Pollution: From smoke and toxic gas emissions.
- Water Pollution: From industrial wastewater and toxins.
- Soil Pollution: From industrial and e-waste.
- Noise Pollution: From machinery and industrial operations.
- Other Impacts: Resource depletion, regional inequality, migration, and unplanned urbanisation.
Sustainable Development
- Definition: Development that meets the needs of the present generation without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.
- Objectives: To conserve resources for the future, maintain environmental balance, and achieve economic growth while ensuring human welfare.
- Methods: The 3 R's - Reduce, Reuse, Recycle, along with conservation of water, energy, and forests. The UN's Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) provide a global framework.
Unit 7: Media and Social Reflections
Value Point Explanation: This unit explores the concept of mass media, tracing its evolution from traditional print to modern digital forms. It analyses the profound impact media has on socialisation, public opinion, and behaviour, while also highlighting the role of technology in this transformation and the emerging need for digital etiquette in our interconnected world.
Mass Media: Evolution
- Definition: Forms of communication that reach a large audience simultaneously.
- Traditional Media:
- Print Media (Newspapers, Magazines): One-way communication, provides in-depth information.
- Broadcast Media (Radio, TV): One-way mass communication, powerful in shaping public opinion.
- New Media:
- Digital & Social Media (Internet, Social Platforms): Enables two-way, interactive, and participatory communication, available globally without time or location constraints.
Media's Impact on Social Life
- Socialisation: Influences how individuals learn social norms, values, and behaviours.
- Public Opinion Formation: Shapes public discourse and consensus on political and social issues. Can also spread misinformation.
- Consumption Behaviour: Drives consumerism and shapes buying habits through advertising.
- Stereotypes: Can create and reinforce generalised preconceptions about groups of people.
- Social Interventions: Brings social problems to public attention and can mobilise action (e.g., hashtag campaigns).
Technology's Role in Media
- Intertwined Growth: Technological advancements are the primary driver of media's evolution.
- Key Innovations:
- Artificial Intelligence (AI): Powers personalised content, learning, and decision-making in media.
- Big Data: Allows for the analysis of vast amounts of information to understand trends and audiences.
- Algorithms: The procedures that drive search engines, recommendation systems, and social media feeds.
Digital Etiquette
- Definition: The norms of proper and respectful behaviour expected in online interactions.
- Importance: Crucial for preventing cybercrimes, defamation, and fraud, and for fostering positive online communities.
- Guidelines: Respecting privacy, avoiding abusive language, being careful with sharing information.
- Benefits: Promotes respectful communication, reduces cybercrime, and supports digital literacy.